Information
Version: C | 2.0 (2022-12-12)
Please note: This part of the profile is currently being revised.
WelfareScore | farm
Sparus aurata
LiPoCe
Criteria
Home range
Depth range
Migration
Reproduction
Aggregation
Aggression
Substrate
Stress
Malformations
Slaughter
Legend
Condensed assessment of the species' likelihood and potential for good fish welfare in aquaculture, based on ethological findings for 10 crucial criteria.
- Li = Likelihood that the individuals of the species experience good welfare under minimal farming conditions
- Po = Potential of the individuals of the species to experience good welfare under high-standard farming conditions
- Ce = Certainty of our findings in Likelihood and Potential
WelfareScore = Sum of criteria scoring "High" (max. 10)
High
Medium
Low
Unclear
No findings
General remarks
Sparus aurata is a sparid from the eastern Atlantic and the Mediterranean, representing one of the most frequently farmed species in Mediterranean marine finfish aquaculture besides Dicentrarchus labrax. It is mostly cultured in sea cages, to a lesser degree also in tanks, raceways, and ponds. The very low FishEthoScore of Sparus aurata is mainly due to high levels of aggression, needs of substrate, stress under farming conditions, and high levels of deformations. Extensive farming providing substrate could be a remediation for some of the problems and help improve fish welfare. Individual farming strategies with mandatory protocols including continuous monitoring are a major stepping stone towards preventing poor welfare and improving the sustainable production of this species. Further research is needed on current farming conditions as well as home range use and aggregation behaviour in the wild.
1 Home range
Many species traverse in a limited horizontal space (even if just for a certain period of time per year); the home range may be described as a species' understanding of its environment (i.e., its cognitive map) for the most important resources it needs access to.
What is the probability of providing the species' whole home range in captivity?
There are unclear findings for minimal and high-standard farming conditions, as the natural home range is either partially or completely unknown for all age classes. Our conclusion is based on a low amount of evidence, as the distance moved in the wild comes from one paper only.Likelihood
Potential
Certainty
2 Depth range
Given the availability of resources (food, shelter) or the need to avoid predators, species spend their time within a certain depth range.
What is the probability of providing the species' whole depth range in captivity?
It is low for minimal farming conditions. It is medium for high-standard farming conditions, as the range in captivity at least overlaps with the range in the wild. Our conclusion is based on a medium amount of evidence.Likelihood
Potential
Certainty
3 Migration
Some species undergo seasonal changes of environments for different purposes (feeding, spawning, etc.), and to move there, they migrate for more or less extensive distances.
What is the probability of providing farming conditions that are compatible with the migrating or habitat-changing behaviour of the species?
It is low for minimal and high-standard farming conditions, as the species undertakes extensive migrations, and we cannot be sure that providing each age class with their respective environmental conditions will satisfy their urge to migrate or whether they need to experience the transition. Our conclusion is based on a high amount of evidence.Likelihood
Potential
Certainty
4 Reproduction
A species reproduces at a certain age, season, and sex ratio and possibly involving courtship rituals.
What is the probability of the species reproducing naturally in captivity without manipulation of these circumstances?
It is low for minimal farming conditions. It is medium for high-standard farming conditions, as natural spawning is possible, but omitting of manipulation needs to be verified for the farming context. Our conclusion is based on a low amount of evidence, as knowledge is missing about courtship and whether the species is allowed to perform it as well as whether stripping is applied.Likelihood
Potential
Certainty
5 Aggregation
Species differ in the way they co-exist with conspecifics or other species from being solitary to aggregating unstructured, casually roaming in shoals or closely coordinating in schools of varying densities.
What is the probability of providing farming conditions that are compatible with the aggregation behaviour of the species?
It is unclear for minimal and high-standard farming conditions. Our conclusion is based on a medium amount of evidence.Likelihood
Potential
Certainty
6 Aggression
There is a range of adverse reactions in species, spanning from being relatively indifferent towards others to defending valuable resources (e.g., food, territory, mates) to actively attacking opponents.
What is the probability of the species being non-aggressive and non-territorial in captivity?
It is low for minimal and high-standard farming conditions, as aggression is present in all age classes, and it is not clear whether size grading and more predictable food dispersal will decrease it. Our conclusion is based on a medium amount of evidence.Likelihood
Potential
Certainty
7 Substrate
Depending on where in the water column the species lives, it differs in interacting with or relying on various substrates for feeding or covering purposes (e.g., plants, rocks and stones, sand and mud, turbidity).
What is the probability of providing the species' substrate and shelter needs in captivity?
It is low for minimal farming conditions, as cages without substrate prevail. It is medium for high-standard farming conditions, as innovations for enrichment need to be verified for the farming context. Our conclusion is based on a medium amount of evidence.Likelihood
Potential
Certainty
8 Stress
Farming involves subjecting the species to diverse procedures (e.g., handling, air exposure, short-term confinement, short-term crowding, transport), sudden parameter changes or repeated disturbances (e.g., husbandry, size-grading).
What is the probability of the species not being stressed?
It is low for minimal farming conditions. It is medium for high-standard farming conditions, as innovations to reduce stress need to be verified for the focus species or for the farming context. Our conclusion is based on a medium amount of evidence.Likelihood
Potential
Certainty
9 Malformations
Deformities that – in contrast to diseases – are commonly irreversible may indicate sub-optimal rearing conditions (e.g., mechanical stress during hatching and rearing, environmental factors unless mentioned in crit. 3, aquatic pollutants, nutritional deficiencies) or a general incompatibility of the species with being farmed.
What is the probability of the species being malformed rarely?
It is low for minimal farming conditions, as malformation rates exceed 10%. It is medium for high-standard farming conditions, as some malformations result from conditions that may be changed (rearing intensity, forced swimming, inheritance, handling). Our conclusion is based on a medium amount of evidence, as improvement of the situation by adjusting conditions needs more proof.Likelihood
Potential
Certainty
10 Slaughter
The cornerstone for a humane treatment is that slaughter a) immediately follows stunning (i.e., while the individual is unconscious), b) happens according to a clear and reproducible set of instructions verified under farming conditions, and c) avoids pain, suffering, and distress.
What is the probability of the species being slaughtered according to a humane slaughter protocol?
It is low for minimal farming conditions. It is high for high-standard farming conditions, as a) percussive stunning followed by bleeding or b) spiking followed by ice slurry induce unconsciousness fast, kill while still unconscious, and are verified for the farming context. Our conclusion is based on a medium amount of evidence.Likelihood
Potential
Certainty
Side note: Domestication
Teletchea and Fontaine introduced 5 domestication levels illustrating how far species are from having their life cycle closed in captivity without wild input, how long they have been reared in captivity, and whether breeding programmes are in place.
What is the species’ domestication level?
DOMESTICATION LEVEL 5 83 84, fully domesticated. Cultured since 1980 11.
Side note: Forage fish in the feed
450-1,000 milliard wild-caught fishes end up being processed into fish meal and fish oil each year which contributes to overfishing and represents enormous suffering. There is a broad range of feeding types within species reared in captivity.
To what degree may fish meal and fish oil based on forage fish be replaced by non-forage fishery components (e.g., poultry blood meal) or sustainable sources (e.g., soybean cake)?
All age classes:
- WILD: carnivorous 20 24 85 13.
- FARM: FRY: tanks: live feed Brachionus plicatilis and Artemia 5; ponds: no exogenous feed, zooplankton bloom 5. Fish oil in early weaning diets may be completely replaced by sustainable sources 86. JUVENILES: fish meal may be not 87 or partly* 88 89 or completely* 90 replaced by sustainable sources with concurrent increase in fish oil or partly* replaced without increase in fish oil 91, fish oil may be completely* replaced by sustainable sources 92. SPAWNERS: fish oil may be mostly* replaced by sustainable sources 93.
- LAB: JUVENILES: fish meal may be mostly* replaced by sustainable sources or non-forage fishery components 94, fish oil may be completely* replaced by a mixture of sustainable sources and non-forage fishery components 86.
* partly = <51% – mostly = 51-99% – completely = 100%
Side note: Commercial relevance
How much is this species farmed annually?
Glossary
AMPHIDROMOUS = migrating between fresh water and sea independent of spawning
DOMESTICATION LEVEL 5 = selective breeding programmes are used focusing on specific goals 83
EURYHALINE = tolerant of a wide range of salinities
FARM = setting in farming environment or under conditions simulating farming environment in terms of size of facility or number of individuals
FRY = larvae from external feeding on
IND = individuals
JUVENILES = fully developed but immature individuals
LAB = setting in laboratory environment
LARVAE = hatching to mouth opening
PHOTOPERIOD = duration of daylight
SPAWNERS = adults during the spawning season; in farms: adults that are kept as broodstock
WILD = setting in the wild
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