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Yellowtail amberjack

Seriola lalandi

Seriola lalandi (Yellowtail amberjack)
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Distribution
Distribution map: Seriola lalandi (Yellowtail amberjack)

least concern



Information


Author: João L. Saraiva
Version: B | 1.1 (2021-12-21)

Please note: This part of the profile is currently being revised.


Reviewers: Pablo Arechavala-Lopez, Jenny Volstorf
Editor: Billo Heinzpeter Studer

Initial release: 2017-03-04
Version information:
  • Appearance: B
  • Last minor update: 2021-12-21

Cite as: »Saraiva, João L.. 2021. Seriola lalandi (WelfareCheck | farm). In: fair-fish database, ed. fair-fish. World Wide Web electronic publication. First published 2017-03-04. Version B | 1.1. https://fair-fish-database.net.«





WelfareScore | farm

Seriola lalandi
LiPoCe
Criteria
Home range
score-li
score-po
score-ce
Depth range
score-li
score-po
score-ce
Migration
score-li
score-po
score-ce
Reproduction
score-li
score-po
score-ce
Aggregation
score-li
score-po
score-ce
Aggression
score-li
score-po
score-ce
Substrate
score-li
score-po
score-ce
Stress
score-li
score-po
score-ce
Malformations
score-li
score-po
score-ce
Slaughter
score-li
score-po
score-ce


Legend

Condensed assessment of the species' likelihood and potential for good fish welfare in aquaculture, based on ethological findings for 10 crucial criteria.

  • Li = Likelihood that the individuals of the species experience good welfare under minimal farming conditions
  • Po = Potential of the individuals of the species to experience good welfare under high-standard farming conditions
  • Ce = Certainty of our findings in Likelihood and Potential

WelfareScore = Sum of criteria scoring "High" (max. 10)

score-legend
High
score-legend
Medium
score-legend
Low
score-legend
Unclear
score-legend
No findings



General remarks

Seriola lalandi is a highly valuable species for aquaculture but only superficially studied. It has been under strong focus from the industry, but some welfare issues arise in current farming conditions. It is a long distance ocean cruiser that migrates and requires more space than that offered by present methods to fulfil its swimming needs. Usual net cages do not provide enough depth for its natural range, although some farmers do use 50 m deep cages that are within values found in the wild. Aggression occurs in the wild and may be of concern in farms, as well as the amount of fish meal and fish oil used in feeds. Further research is needed on rates of malformations in the wild and on how this species responds to stressful conditions from aquaculture procedures.




1  Home range

Many species traverse in a limited horizontal space (even if just for a certain period of time per year); the home range may be described as a species' understanding of its environment (i.e., its cognitive map) for the most important resources it needs access to.

What is the probability of providing the species' whole home range in captivity?

It is low for minimal and high-standard farming conditions. Our conclusion is based on a high amount of evidence.

Likelihoodscore-li
Potentialscore-po
Certaintyscore-ce

LARVAE: WILD: planktonic 1 2 3. FARM: tanks: 1.2 m diameter (1600 L) cone-bottom tanks 4.

JUVENILES: WILD: pelagic 5: Inhabit the water column, independent of bottom and shore; usually in high oceanic currents 6. Fast swimming 7, long distance ocean cruisers 8 9. FARM: cages: 4 x 4 x 4 m 10-11, 8-25 m diameter x 4-15 m depth 12 11, max 50 x 50 x 50 m 10-11 13.

ADULTS: ➝ JUVENILES.

SPAWNERS: WILD: pelagic 5; pelagic spawning area: >10,000 m2 6. FARM: spawning cages: 50 x 50 x 50 m 13, spawning pools: 140 m3 (9.1 m diameter x 2.4 m depth) 4LAB: spawning tanks: 70 m3 14.




2  Depth range

Given the availability of resources (food, shelter) or the need to avoid predators, species spend their time within a certain depth range.

What is the probability of providing the species' whole depth range in captivity?

It is unclear for minimal farming conditions. It is medium for high-standard farming conditions. Our conclusion is based on a high amount of evidence.

Likelihoodscore-li
Potentialscore-po
Certaintyscore-ce

Eggs: WILD: floating 1 2 3 14.  FARM: 1.6 m cone-bottom tanks 4.

LARVAE: WILD: planktonic 15 2 3 1. FARM:  Eggs.

JUVENILES: WILD: 0-50 m 16 17. FARM: cages usually 4-15 m 10-11 18 12, max 50 m 10-11 13.

ADULTS:  JUVENILES.

SPAWNERSWILD: 0-50 m 16 17. FARM: spawning cages: 50 x 50 x 50 m 13;  spawning tanks: 140 m3 (9.1 m diameter x 2.4 m depth) 4.




3  Migration

Some species undergo seasonal changes of environments for different purposes (feeding, spawning, etc.), and to move there, they migrate for more or less extensive distances.

What is the probability of providing farming conditions that are compatible with the migrating or habitat-changing behaviour of the species?

It is low for minimal and high-standard farming conditions. Our conclusion is based on a high amount of evidence.

Likelihoodscore-li
Potentialscore-po
Certaintyscore-ce

LARVAE: WILD: develop in the open ocean 1FARM: 1600 L cone-bottom tanks 4. For details of holding systems ➝ crit 1 and 2.  

JUVENILES: WILD: Migrate large distances 19 20, from ca 40 km 9 to over 500 km 8 9FARM: sea cages  10-11 12 13. For details of holding systems ➝ crit 1 and 2.  

ADULTS:  JUVENILES.

SPAWNERS: WILD: migrate 20 sometimes >500 km 8 from the open ocean to coastal or shallower habitats to spawn 5FARM: spawning cages 13, pools 4 and tanks 14. For details of holding systems ➝ crit 1 and 2.  




4  Reproduction

A species reproduces at a certain age, season, and sex ratio and possibly involving courtship rituals.

What is the probability of the species reproducing naturally in captivity without manipulation of these circumstances?

It is high for minimal and high-standard farming conditions. Our conclusion is based on a medium amount of evidence.

Likelihoodscore-li
Potentialscore-po
Certaintyscore-ce

WILD: spawning occurs in spring and summer 11615. FARM: Parents kept in 70-140 m3 circular tanks with a depth of 2.5 m in 1:1 sex ratio 24, in temperatures 13-23 ºC 4 but spawning occurs only above 17 ºC 2. Males court females by swimming underneath them, touching their gonoduct and pursuing them. Females then release eggs and males release sperm into the water. Opportunistic males may try to spawn parasitically 2. Reproduce spontaneously and naturally 2 4. The author of this profile is not aware of any species that shows a spontaneous type of reproductive behaviour in captivity that majorly differs from the wild.




5  Aggregation

Species differ in the way they co-exist with conspecifics or other species from being solitary to aggregating unstructured, casually roaming in shoals or closely coordinating in schools of varying densities.

What is the probability of providing farming conditions that are compatible with the aggregation behaviour of the species?

It is high for minimal and high-standard farming conditions. Our conclusion is based on a medium amount of evidence.

Likelihoodscore-li
Potentialscore-po
Certaintyscore-ce

LARVAE: WILD: occur naturally in large numbers sharing the same space, usually thousands of individuals 15. FARMno data found yet.

JUVENILES: WILD: Large schools of undescribed size 6 21 including for feeding purposes 22. FARM: Net cages: 100-200 ind/m3 11.

ADULTS: ➝ JUVENILES.

SPAWNERSWILD: Form spawning aggregations 5 21 23. FARM: spawning pools: 21-35 individuals of 8.2-19.0 kg in 140 m3 fibreglass pool (ca 2-4 kg/m3) 4LAB: Experimental spawning tanks: 14 individuals of 17 kg each in 70 m3 tank (ca 3.4 kg/m32.




6  Aggression

There is a range of adverse reactions in species, spanning from being relatively indifferent towards others to defending valuable resources (e.g., food, territory, mates) to actively attacking opponents.

What is the probability of the species being non-aggressive and non-territorial in captivity?

It is low for minimal farming conditions. It is medium for high-standard farming conditions. Our conclusion is based on a low amount of evidence.

Likelihoodscore-li
Potentialscore-po
Certaintyscore-ce

LARVAE: aggressive 4 from19 days post hatching onwards 24 14.

JUVENILES: aggressive 24 14 25.

ADULTSno data found yet.

SPAWNERSno data found yet.




7  Substrate

Depending on where in the water column the species lives, it differs in interacting with or relying on various substrates for feeding or covering purposes (e.g., plants, rocks and stones, sand and mud, turbidity).

What is the probability of providing the species' substrate and shelter needs in captivity?

It is high for minimal and high-standard farming conditions. Our conclusion is based on a high amount of evidence.

Likelihoodscore-li
Potentialscore-po
Certaintyscore-ce

Eggs: WILDPELAGIC 15 2 3FARM: cone-bottom tanks 4.

LARVAEWILD and  FARM: ➝ Eggs.

JUVENILES: WILDPELAGIC 26 17 6 24FARM: sea cages 11 12 13. For details of holding systems  crit 1 and 2.

ADULTS:  WILD and  FARM ➝ JUVENILES

SPAWNERS:  WILDPELAGIC 19 20 2FARM: spawning cages 13 and pools 4. For details of holding systems  crit 1 and 2. 




8  Stress

Farming involves subjecting the species to diverse procedures (e.g., handling, air exposure, short-term confinement, short-term crowding, transport), sudden parameter changes or repeated disturbances (e.g., husbandry, size-grading).

What is the probability of the species not being stressed?

It is unclear for minimal farming conditions. It is medium for high-standard farming conditions. Our conclusion is based on a low amount of evidence.

Likelihoodscore-li
Potentialscore-po
Certaintyscore-ce

Eggs: no data found yet.

LARVAEno data found yet.

JUVENILES: no apparent stress from handling 27 but mild acute transitory stress from transport 28. Sensitive to pH <7.16, but overall tolerant to farming conditions 29.

ADULTS: no data found yet.

SPAWNERS: no data found yet.




9  Malformations

Deformities that – in contrast to diseases – are commonly irreversible may indicate sub-optimal rearing conditions (e.g., mechanical stress during hatching and rearing, environmental factors unless mentioned in crit. 3, aquatic pollutants, nutritional deficiencies) or a general incompatibility of the species with being farmed.

What is the probability of the species being malformed rarely?

It is low for minimal farming conditions. It is medium for high-standard farming conditions. Our conclusion is based on a medium amount of evidence.

Likelihoodscore-li
Potentialscore-po
Certaintyscore-ce

Eggs: abnormalities in morphometrics in 6-69% 2.

LARVAE: malformations of the jaw 30 14 31 32 33, operculum 14 33, spine 31 14, and nasal erosion 33. Overall rate 7-75%.

JUVENILES: skeletal deformities 11

ADULTS: no data found yet.

Overall malformation rate higher than other species such as sea bream (>10 %) 34, sea bass (<30 %) 35, catfish (5 %) or tilapia (<3 %) 36.




10  Slaughter

The cornerstone for a humane treatment is that slaughter a) immediately follows stunning (i.e., while the individual is unconscious), b) happens according to a clear and reproducible set of instructions verified under farming conditions, and c) avoids pain, suffering, and distress.

What is the probability of the species being slaughtered according to a humane slaughter protocol?

It is high for minimal and high-standard farming conditions. Our conclusion is based on a medium amount of evidence.

Likelihoodscore-li
Potentialscore-po
Certaintyscore-ce

Common and high-standard slaughter method: a protocol for electrical stunning and killing by immersion in icewater is available. Most effective when stunned for 5 s (124 V dc and 11 Vrms ac 100 Hz) and placed in icewater for 10 min 37.




Side note: Domestication

Teletchea and Fontaine introduced 5 domestication levels illustrating how far species are from having their life cycle closed in captivity without wild input, how long they have been reared in captivity, and whether breeding programmes are in place.

What is the species’ domestication level?

DOMESTICATION LEVEL 2 38, level 5 being fully domesticated.




Side note: Forage fish in the feed

450-1,000 milliard wild-caught fishes end up being processed into fish meal and fish oil each year which contributes to overfishing and represents enormous suffering. There is a broad range of feeding types within species reared in captivity.

To what degree may fish meal and fish oil based on forage fish be replaced by non-forage fishery components (e.g., poultry blood meal) or sustainable sources (e.g., soybean cake)?

All age classes: WILD: carnivorous 11 39 40 41. FARM: for JUVENILES fish meal may be partly* replaced by soy protein 42 43; fish oil may be completely* replaced by poultry 44 and partly* replaced by canola oil 44.

*partly = <51%, mostly = 51-99%, completely = 100%




Glossary


ADULTS = mature individuals, for details Findings 10.1 Ontogenetic development
DOMESTICATION LEVEL 2 = part of the life cycle closed in captivity, also known as capture-based aquaculture 38
FARM = setting in farming environment or under conditions simulating farming environment in terms of size of facility or number of individuals
JUVENILES = fully developed but immature individuals, for details Findings 10.1 Ontogenetic development
LAB = setting in laboratory environment
LARVAE = hatching to mouth opening, for details Findings 10.1 Ontogenetic development
PELAGIC = living independent of bottom and shore of a body of water
SPAWNERS = adults during the spawning season; in farms: adults that are kept as broodstock
WILD = setting in the wild



Bibliography


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42 Jirsa, D., A. Davis, K. Stuart, and M. Drawbridge. 2011. Development of a practical soy-based diet for California yellowtail, Seriola lalandi: Soy-based diet for California yellowtail. Aquaculture Nutrition 17: e869–e874. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-2095.2011.00856.x.
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44 Bowyer, J.N., J.G. Qin, R.P. Smullen, and D.A.J. Stone. 2012. Replacement of fish oil by poultry oil and canola oil in yellowtail kingfish (Seriola lalandi) at optimal and suboptimal temperatures. Aquaculture 356–357: 211–222. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.aquaculture.2012.05.014.


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