Information
Version: B | 1.2 (2022-07-20)
Please note: This part of the profile is currently being revised.
WelfareScore | farm
Condensed assessment of the species' likelihood and potential for good fish welfare in aquaculture, based on ethological findings for 10 crucial criteria.
- Li = Likelihood that the individuals of the species experience good welfare under minimal farming conditions
- Po = Potential of the individuals of the species to experience good welfare under high-standard farming conditions
- Ce = Certainty of our findings in Likelihood and Potential
WelfareScore = Sum of criteria scoring "High" (max. 10)
General remarks
Polyprion americanus is a marine, bathydemersal, and oceanodromous fish belonging to the family Polyprionidae, having a worldwide distribution and living in deep waters. P. americanus is considered one of the most interesting new species for aquaculture diversification due to its fast growth, late reproductive maturation, high market price, and limited fisheries landings. However, the deep-water living behaviour, the difficulty in acquiring wild fish for initial broodstock formation, the lack of reproduction control in captivity, and the lack of any larval rearing protocols are serious bottlenecks. Further research is needed on both natural behaviour and physiological effects of farming practices in order to develop specific rearing conditions and provide recommendations for improving fish welfare.
1 Home range
Many species traverse in a limited horizontal space (even if just for a certain period of time per year); the home range may be described as a species' understanding of its environment (i.e., its cognitive map) for the most important resources it needs access to.
What is the probability of providing the species' whole home range in captivity?
It is unclear for minimal and high-standard farming conditions. Our conclusion is based on a low amount of evidence.2 Depth range
Given the availability of resources (food, shelter) or the need to avoid predators, species spend their time within a certain depth range.
What is the probability of providing the species' whole depth range in captivity?
It is low for minimal and high-standard farming conditions. Our conclusion is based on a high amount of evidence.3 Migration
Some species undergo seasonal changes of environments for different purposes (feeding, spawning, etc.), and to move there, they migrate for more or less extensive distances.
What is the probability of providing farming conditions that are compatible with the migrating or habitat-changing behaviour of the species?
It is low for minimal and high-standard farming conditions. Our conclusion is based on a high amount of evidence.4 Reproduction
A species reproduces at a certain age, season, and sex ratio and possibly involving courtship rituals.
What is the probability of the species reproducing naturally in captivity without manipulation of these circumstances?
It is low for minimal and high-standard farming conditions. Our conclusion is based on a high amount of evidence.5 Aggregation
Species differ in the way they co-exist with conspecifics or other species from being solitary to aggregating unstructured, casually roaming in shoals or closely coordinating in schools of varying densities.
What is the probability of providing farming conditions that are compatible with the aggregation behaviour of the species?
It is low for minimal and high-standard farming conditions. Our conclusion is based on a medium amount of evidence.6 Aggression
There is a range of adverse reactions in species, spanning from being relatively indifferent towards others to defending valuable resources (e.g., food, territory, mates) to actively attacking opponents.
What is the probability of the species being non-aggressive and non-territorial in captivity?
There are no findings for minimal and high-standard farming conditions.7 Substrate
Depending on where in the water column the species lives, it differs in interacting with or relying on various substrates for feeding or covering purposes (e.g., plants, rocks and stones, sand and mud, turbidity).
What is the probability of providing the species' substrate and shelter needs in captivity?
It is low for minimal farming conditions. It is medium for high-standard farming conditions. Our conclusion is based on a medium amount of evidence.8 Stress
Farming involves subjecting the species to diverse procedures (e.g., handling, air exposure, short-term confinement, short-term crowding, transport), sudden parameter changes or repeated disturbances (e.g., husbandry, size-grading).
What is the probability of the species not being stressed?
There are no findings for minimal and high-standard farming conditions.9 Malformations
Deformities that – in contrast to diseases – are commonly irreversible may indicate sub-optimal rearing conditions (e.g., mechanical stress during hatching and rearing, environmental factors unless mentioned in crit. 3, aquatic pollutants, nutritional deficiencies) or a general incompatibility of the species with being farmed.
What is the probability of the species being malformed rarely?
It is unclear for minimal and high-standard farming conditions. Our conclusion is based on a low amount of evidence.10 Slaughter
The cornerstone for a humane treatment is that slaughter a) immediately follows stunning (i.e., while the individual is unconscious), b) happens according to a clear and reproducible set of instructions verified under farming conditions, and c) avoids pain, suffering, and distress.
What is the probability of the species being slaughtered according to a humane slaughter protocol?
There are no findings for minimal and high-standard farming conditions.Side note: Domestication
Teletchea and Fontaine introduced 5 domestication levels illustrating how far species are from having their life cycle closed in captivity without wild input, how long they have been reared in captivity, and whether breeding programmes are in place.
What is the species’ domestication level?
DOMESTICATION LEVEL 2 20, level 5 being fully domesticated.
Side note: Forage fish in the feed
450-1,000 milliard wild-caught fishes end up being processed into fish meal and fish oil each year which contributes to overfishing and represents enormous suffering. There is a broad range of feeding types within species reared in captivity.
To what degree may fish meal and fish oil based on forage fish be replaced by non-forage fishery components (e.g., poultry blood meal) or sustainable sources (e.g., soybean cake)?
All age classes: WILD: carnivorous 6 4. FARM: no replacement of fish meal and fish oil reported in literature.
Side note: Commercial relevance
How much is this species farmed annually?
No data found yet.Glossary
DEMERSAL = living and feeding on or near the bottom of a body of water, mostly benthopelagic, some benthic
DOMESTICATION LEVEL 2 = part of the life cycle closed in captivity, also known as capture-based aquaculture 20
FARM = setting in farming environment or under conditions simulating farming environment in terms of size of facility or number of individuals
JUVENILES = fully developed but immature individuals
LARVAE = hatching to mouth opening
OCEANODROMOUS = living and migrating in the sea
PELAGIC = living independent of bottom and shore of a body of water
SPAWNERS = adults during the spawning season; in farms: adults that are kept as broodstock
WILD = setting in the wild
Bibliography
2 Machias, A., S. Somarakis, N. Papadroulakis, M.-T. Spedicato, M. Suquet, G. Lembo, and P. Divanach. 2003. Settlement of the wreckfish (Polyprionamericanus). Marine Biology 142: 45–52. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00227-002-0918-2.
3 Papandroulakis, N., M. Suquet, M. T. Spedicato, A. Machias, C. Fauvel, and P. Divanach. 2004. Feeding Rates, Growth Performance and Gametogenesis of Wreckfish (Polyprion americanus) kept in Captivity. Aquaculture International 12: 395–407. https://doi.org/10.1023/B:AQUI.0000042133.69455.95.
4 Martínez, J.M. 2014. Especies emergentes en la acuicultura europea: La cherna. Máster Interuniversitario en Acuicultura.
5 Mylonas, C. C., N. Papandroulakis, Ioannis Fakriadis, Irini Sigelaki, Maria Papadaki, J. B. Peleteiro, B. Alvarez-Blázquez, et al. 2017. Advances in wreckfish (Polyprion americanus) research: the DIVERSIFY project. Aquaculture Europe.
6 Haimovici, Manuel, Agnaldo Martins, J Lima de figueiredo, and PC Vieira. 1994. Demersal bony fish of the outer shelf and upper slope of southern Brazil Subtropical Convergence Ecosystem. Marine Ecology-progress Series - MAR ECOL-PROGR SER 108: 59–77. https://doi.org/10.3354/meps108059.
7 Sedberry, GR, CA Andrade, JL Carlin, RW Chapman, BE Luckhurst, CS Manooch, G Menezes, B Thomsen, and GF Ulrich. 1999. Wreckfish Polyprion americanus in the North Atlantic: Fisheries, Biology, and Management of a Widely Distributed and Long-Lived Fish - ScienceBase-Catalog. Am Fish Soc Symp: 27–50.
8 Roncarati, Alessandra, Roberto Cappuccinelli, Luca Stocchi, and Paolo Melotti. 2014. Wreckfish, Polyprion americanus (Bloch and Schneider, 1801), a promising species for aquaculture: Proximate composition, fatty acid profile and cholesterol content of wild Mediterranean specimens. Journal of Food Composition and Analysis 36: 104–110. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jfca.2014.07.003.
9 Fauvel, Christian, Marc Suquet, Armelle Severe, Constantinos C. Mylonas, and Nikos Papandroulakis. 2008. Slow-release GnRHa treatment prevented atresia during vitellogenesis and induced ovulation of captive wreckfish (Polyprion americanus). Cybium, Revue Internationale d’Ichtyologie 32.
10 Peres, Mônica B., and Sandro Klippel. 2003. Reproductive Biology of Southwestern Atlantic Wreckfish, Polyprion americanus (Teleostei: Polyprionidae). Environmental Biology of Fishes 68: 163–173. https://doi.org/10.1023/B:EBFI.0000003845.43700.29.
11 Ball, A. O., G. R. Sedberry, M. S. Zatcoff, R. W. Chapman, and J. L. Carlin. 2000. Population structure of the wreckfish Polyprion americanus determined with microsatellite genetic markers. Marine Biology 137: 1077–1090. https://doi.org/10.1007/s002270000392.
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13 Roberts, C. D. 1977. The Wreckfish Polyprion americanus (Schneider, 1801) in Irish Waters: An Underwater Sighting and Review of the Irish Records. The Irish Naturalists’ Journal 19: 108–112.
14 Sedberry, George R., G. F. Ulrich, and A. J. Applegate. 1994. Development and status of the fishery for Wreckfish (Polyprion americanus) in the southeastern United States. In , 168–192.
15 Papandroulakis, N, C Mylonas, E Syggelaki, P Katharios, and P. Divanach. 2008. First reproduction of captive-reared wreckfish (Polyprion americanus) using GnRH implants. In . Krakow, Poland.
16 Ryall, P. J. C., and B. T. Hargrave. 1984. Attraction of the Atlantic wreckfish (Polyprion americanus) to an unbaited camera on the Mid-Atlantic Ridge. Deep Sea Research Part A. Oceanographic Research Papers 31: 79–83. https://doi.org/10.1016/0198-0149(84)90075-X.
17 Addis, Piero, Angelo Cau, Enric Massutí, Paolo Merella, Mauro Sinopoli, and Franco Andaloro. 2017. Spatial and temporal changes in the assemblage structure of fishes associated to fish aggregation devices in the Western Mediterranean. Aquatic Living Resources 19: 149–160. https://doi.org/10.1051/alr:2006018.
18 Maia, Caroline Marques. 2017. Personal communication.
19 Álvarez_Blázquez, B., A. Vilar, N. Papandroulakis, F. Linares, R. Cal, J.L. Rodríguez, J.M. Martínez, N. Lluch, C. Gómez, and J. B. Peleteiro. 2016. First experiences of wreckfish (Polyprion americanus) larval husbandry in NW Atlantic and East Mediterranean. In . Edinburgh, Scotland.
20 Teletchea, Fabrice, and Pascal Fontaine. 2012. Levels of domestication in fish: implications for the sustainable future of aquaculture. Fish and Fisheries 15: 181–195. https://doi.org/10.1111/faf.12006.
