Information
Version: C | 2.0 (2024-07-20)
- profile update resulting in major editorial and content changes (changing the scoring in criteria 1-5, 7-10)
- transfer to consistent age class and label structure resulting in changed appearance
WelfareScore | farm
Condensed assessment of the species' likelihood and potential for good fish welfare in aquaculture, based on ethological findings for 10 crucial criteria.
- Li = Likelihood that the individuals of the species experience good welfare under minimal farming conditions
- Po = Potential of the individuals of the species to experience good welfare under high-standard farming conditions
- Ce = Certainty of our findings in Likelihood and Potential
WelfareScore = Sum of criteria scoring "High" (max. 10)
General remarks
Oreochromis niloticus originated in fresh waters of the Middle East as well as sub-Saharan Africa. It is one of the top 5 most frequently cultured species worldwide, mainly reared in Southeast Asia, China, and Africa. Due to its fast growth, it can reach market size in 5-6 months. Its rearing does not come without a toll on the individuals, though. Because maturity sets in early as well, farmers in intensive rearing administer hormones through the feed that renders individuals all male, or genetic engineering results in all-male populations. This prevents unwanted reproduction and the growth deficiencies that come with it. Also, it favours males which grow up to 50% faster than females.
The two most frequently used culture systems are ponds and cages of which earthen ponds, especially irrigation ponds or reservoirs, overlap more with the natural needs of space, density, and substrate than cages. Shelters and shading may also be applied artifically, though. IND are allowed to spawn naturally, i.e., without manipulation and stripping, but there seems to be a trend towards hormonal induction to synchronise spawning or avoid injuries by aggressive SPAWNERS. Aggression is an issue in other age classes as well and does not seem to be avoidable completely; one recommended method - to size grade - is stressful itself. Other husbandry practices like handling and transport impose stress, too, which may be reduced but not avoided. Electrical stunning followed by exsanguination, evisceration, or filleting is availabla but at risk of failing if not executed correctly.
Note: We used some older sources that referred to O. niloticus as Tilapia nilotica 1 2 or Sarotherodon niloticus 3 4 5 6, as was common at the time.
1 Home range
Many species traverse in a limited horizontal space (even if just for a certain period of time per year); the home range may be described as a species' understanding of its environment (i.e., its cognitive map) for the most important resources it needs access to.
What is the probability of providing the species' whole home range in captivity?
It is unclear for minimal and high-standard farming conditions, given we mainly found data from farms. Our conclusion is based on a medium amount of evidence, as further research is needed on home range in the wild.![Likelihood: unclear score-li](/static/feb/img/scores/li--1.jpg)
![Potential: unclear score-po](/static/feb/img/scores/po--1.jpg)
![Certainty: medium score-ce](/static/feb/img/scores/ce-1.jpg)
2 Depth range
Given the availability of resources (food, shelter) or the need to avoid predators, species spend their time within a certain depth range.
What is the probability of providing the species' whole depth range in captivity?
It is low for minimal farming conditions, as ponds, cages, tanks, and hapas do not cover the whole range in the wild (except for SPAWNERS). It is medium for high-standard farming conditions, as the mentioned systems at least overlap with the range in the wild. Our conclusion is based on a high amount of evidence unless farm studies show that O. niloticus is well under lower depths as in the wild.![Likelihood: low score-li](/static/feb/img/scores/li-0.jpg)
![Potential: medium score-po](/static/feb/img/scores/po-1.jpg)
![Certainty: high score-ce](/static/feb/img/scores/ce-2.jpg)
3 Migration
Some species undergo seasonal changes of environments for different purposes (feeding, spawning, etc.), and to move there, they migrate for more or less extensive distances.
What is the probability of providing farming conditions that are compatible with the migrating or habitat-changing behaviour of the species?
It is low for minimal farming conditions, as the species undertakes more or less extensive migrations, and we cannot be sure that providing each age class with their respective environmental conditions will satisfy their urge to migrate or whether they need to experience the transition. It is medium for high-standard farming conditions, as the space range in captivity overlaps with the migration distance. Our conclusion is based on a medium amount of evidence, as further research is needed on specific migration distances in the wild.![Likelihood: low score-li](/static/feb/img/scores/li-0.jpg)
![Potential: medium score-po](/static/feb/img/scores/po-1.jpg)
![Certainty: medium score-ce](/static/feb/img/scores/ce-1.jpg)
4 Reproduction
A species reproduces at a certain age, season, and sex ratio and possibly involving courtship rituals.
What is the probability of the species reproducing naturally in captivity without manipulation of these circumstances?
It is low for minimal farming conditions, as the species is manipulated (hormonal manipulation, eggs taken from female’s mouth, in the lab also stripping) and may be taken from the wild. It is high for high-standard farming conditions, as natural breeding (without manipulation) with farm-reared IND is possible and verified for the farming context. Our conclusion is based on a medium amount of evidence, as further research is needed on reproduction behaviour in the wild.![Likelihood: low score-li](/static/feb/img/scores/li-0.jpg)
![Potential: high score-po](/static/feb/img/scores/po-2.jpg)
![Certainty: medium score-ce](/static/feb/img/scores/ce-1.jpg)
5 Aggregation
Species differ in the way they co-exist with conspecifics or other species from being solitary to aggregating unstructured, casually roaming in shoals or closely coordinating in schools of varying densities.
What is the probability of providing farming conditions that are compatible with the aggregation behaviour of the species?
It is low for minimal farming conditions, as densities in ponds, cages, tanks, and hapas go beyond the smallest density in the wild. It is medium for high-standard farming conditions, as densities in other ponds at least overlap with the density range in the wild. Our conclusion is based on a high amount of evidence, unless farm studies show that O. niloticus is well under higher densities as in the wild.![Likelihood: low score-li](/static/feb/img/scores/li-0.jpg)
![Potential: medium score-po](/static/feb/img/scores/po-1.jpg)
![Certainty: high score-ce](/static/feb/img/scores/ce-2.jpg)
6 Aggression
There is a range of adverse reactions in species, spanning from being relatively indifferent towards others to defending valuable resources (e.g., food, territory, mates) to actively attacking opponents.
What is the probability of the species being non-aggressive and non-territorial in captivity?
It is low for minimal farming conditions, as the species is aggressive – even cannibalistic – in almost all age classes. It is medium for high-standard farming conditions, as a) ways to reduce (but not avoid) aggression (size homogeneity, density) are verified for the farming context, although there are contradictory findings on whether increasing or decreasing density is best and b) more ways to reduce aggression (adding oregano oil or tryptophan to the diet, tactile stimulation, low light intensity) need to be verified for the farming context. Our conclusion is based on a medium amount of evidence.![Likelihood: low score-li](/static/feb/img/scores/li-0.jpg)
![Potential: medium score-po](/static/feb/img/scores/po-1.jpg)
![Certainty: medium score-ce](/static/feb/img/scores/ce-1.jpg)
7 Substrate
Depending on where in the water column the species lives, it differs in interacting with or relying on various substrates for feeding or covering purposes (e.g., plants, rocks and stones, sand and mud, turbidity).
What is the probability of providing the species' substrate and shelter needs in captivity?
It is low for minimal farming conditions, as almost all age classes of the species use substrate, but some ponds, cages, tanks, and hapas are devoid of it. It is high for high-standard farming conditions given a) eggs are left in female’s mouth, b) earthen ponds for FRY to ADULTS which are not replaced by concrete bottom, and given b) natural reproduction with spawning substrate in ponds for SPAWNERS. Our conclusion is based on a medium amount of evidence, as further research is needed to determine whether shading and aerial protection nets suffice as replacements of structurally complex wetlands and macrophytes.![Likelihood: low score-li](/static/feb/img/scores/li-0.jpg)
![Potential: high score-po](/static/feb/img/scores/po-2.jpg)
![Certainty: medium score-ce](/static/feb/img/scores/ce-1.jpg)
8 Stress
Farming involves subjecting the species to diverse procedures (e.g., handling, air exposure, short-term confinement, short-term crowding, transport), sudden parameter changes or repeated disturbances (e.g., husbandry, size-grading).
What is the probability of the species not being stressed?
It is low for minimal farming conditions, as the species is stressed (water quality, handling, confinement, crowding, transport). It is medium for high-standard farming conditions, as some ways to reduce (but not avoid) stress are verified for the farming context. Our conclusion is based on a high amount of evidence, as it seems clear that stress cannot be avoided.![Likelihood: low score-li](/static/feb/img/scores/li-0.jpg)
![Potential: medium score-po](/static/feb/img/scores/po-1.jpg)
![Certainty: high score-ce](/static/feb/img/scores/ce-2.jpg)
9 Malformations
Deformities that – in contrast to diseases – are commonly irreversible may indicate sub-optimal rearing conditions (e.g., mechanical stress during hatching and rearing, environmental factors unless mentioned in crit. 3, aquatic pollutants, nutritional deficiencies) or a general incompatibility of the species with being farmed.
What is the probability of the species being malformed rarely?
It is high for minimal and high-standard farming conditions, as malformation rates do not exceed 10%. Our conclusion is based on a medium amount of evidence, as further research is needed.![Likelihood: high score-li](/static/feb/img/scores/li-2.jpg)
![Potential: high score-po](/static/feb/img/scores/po-2.jpg)
![Certainty: medium score-ce](/static/feb/img/scores/ce-1.jpg)
10 Slaughter
The cornerstone for a humane treatment is that slaughter a) immediately follows stunning (i.e., while the individual is unconscious), b) happens according to a clear and reproducible set of instructions verified under farming conditions, and c) avoids pain, suffering, and distress.
What is the probability of the species being slaughtered according to a humane slaughter protocol?
It is low for minimal farming conditions. It is high for high-standard farming conditions, as electrical stunning, followed by exsanguination, evisceration, or filleting, induces unconsciousness fast (if done correctly), kills while still unconscious, and is verified for the farming context. Our conclusion is based on a medium amount of evidence, as further research is needed to determine how often electrical stunning fails in the farming context.![Likelihood: low score-li](/static/feb/img/scores/li-0.jpg)
![Potential: high score-po](/static/feb/img/scores/po-2.jpg)
![Certainty: medium score-ce](/static/feb/img/scores/ce-1.jpg)
Side note: Domestication
Teletchea and Fontaine introduced 5 domestication levels illustrating how far species are from having their life cycle closed in captivity without wild input, how long they have been reared in captivity, and whether breeding programmes are in place.
What is the species’ domestication level?
DOMESTICATION LEVEL 5 121, fully domesticated.
Side note: Forage fish in the feed
450-1,000 milliard wild-caught fishes end up being processed into fish meal and fish oil each year which contributes to overfishing and represents enormous suffering. There is a broad range of feeding types within species reared in captivity.
To what degree may fish meal and fish oil based on forage fish be replaced by non-forage fishery components (e.g., poultry blood meal) or sustainable sources (e.g., soybean cake)?
All age classes:
- WILD: opportunistic – either mainly herbivorous 6 (non-native habitat: 45 44 49 122 88) or mainly omnivorous (non-native habitat: 8 48 43 50).
- FARM: fish meal may be completely* replaced by non-forage fishery components 123. Ponds: no external feed administered in extensive culture systems 11. Cages: feed without fish meal and fish oil 26. Higher growth of SPAWNERS in fertilised than unfertilised ponds, higher number of hatched FRY at 25-30% protein level for SPAWNERS in pre-spawning period 14.
- LAB: fish meal may be completely* replaced be some sustainable sources 124, not 125 126, partly* 127, or mostly* replaced by other sustainable sources 128. Fish meal may be partly* replaced by non-forage fishery components 129 130. Fish oil may be completely* replaced by some sustainable sources 131 132, partly* by other sustainable sources 133.
*partly = <51% – mostly = 51-99% – completely = 100%
Glossary
DOMESTICATION LEVEL 5 = selective breeding programmes are used focusing on specific goals 121
EURYHALINE = tolerant of a wide range of salinities
FARM = setting in farming environment or under conditions simulating farming environment in terms of size of facility or number of individuals
FINGERLINGS = early juveniles with fully developed scales and working fins, the size of a human finger
FRY = larvae from external feeding on
IND = individuals
JUVENILES = fully developed but immature individuals
LAB = setting in laboratory environment
LARVAE = hatching to mouth opening
NTU = Nephelometric Turbidity Units
PHOTOPERIOD = duration of daylight
POTAMODROMOUS = migrating within fresh water
RAS = Recirculating Aquaculture System - almost completely closed system using filters to clean and recirculate water with the aim of reducing water input and with the advantage of enabling close control of environmental parameters to maintain high water quality
SPAWNERS = adults during the spawning season; in farms: adults that are kept as broodstock
TOTAL LENGTH = from snout to tip of caudal fin as compared to fork length (which measures from snout to fork of caudal fin) or standard length (from head to base of tail fin) or body length (from the base of the eye notch to the posterior end of the telson) 41
WILD = setting in the wild
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