Information
Version: C | 1.0 (2024-04-18)
- internal profile review resulting in major editorial and content changes (changing the scoring in criteria 5 and 7)
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WelfareScore | farm
Condensed assessment of the species' likelihood and potential for good fish welfare in aquaculture, based on ethological findings for 10 crucial criteria.
- Li = Likelihood that the individuals of the species experience good welfare under minimal farming conditions
- Po = Potential of the individuals of the species to experience good welfare under high-standard farming conditions
- Ce = Certainty of our findings in Likelihood and Potential
WelfareScore = Sum of criteria scoring "High" (max. 10)
General remarks
Micropterus salmoides is a subtropical freshwater fish naturally inhabiting shallow vegetated waters of lakes, ponds, swamps, backwaters, pools of creeks, and small to large rivers in North America. Its distribution comprises St. Lawrence and Great Lakes, Mississippi River basins, and Atlantic and Gulf drainages. In aquaculture, besides being considered an excellent food species, it has been introduced widely as a game fish. Several countries report adverse ecological impact after its introduction. Despite that, it is considered a very promising and valuable freshwater species for consumption, being one of the most economically important aquaculture species in China. Pond culture remains as the dominant production method for M. salmoides, mainly based on monoculture under a high density, high feeding volume, and high water exchange rate. This species has some characteristics considered as advantages for aquaculture, such as excellent flesh quality, no intermuscular bones, rapid growth performance, short culture cycle, and strong adaptability. Despite that, there is still a lack of information considering malformation rates and slaughtering procedures on farms. Thus, further studies are needed to better assess and to improve the welfare of this species.
Note: Due to reaching maturity after the typical age and weight at slaughter, there is no age class "Adults" under FARM in the profile. For information from the wild, the age class “Juveniles” may also refer to ADULTS and vice versa, as the literature does not always specify.
1 Home range
Many species traverse in a limited horizontal space (even if just for a certain period of time per year); the home range may be described as a species' understanding of its environment (i.e., its cognitive map) for the most important resources it needs access to.
What is the probability of providing the species' whole home range in captivity?
It is low for minimal farming conditions, as cages, raceways, tanks, containers, and some ponds do not cover – in fact not even overlap with – the whole range in the wild, although we cannot be sure in some age classes. It is medium for high-standard farming conditions, as other ponds at least overlap with the range in the wild. Our conclusion is based on a medium amount of evidence, as wild information is missing in LARVAE, FRY, and SPAWNERS.2 Depth range
Given the availability of resources (food, shelter) or the need to avoid predators, species spend their time within a certain depth range.
What is the probability of providing the species' whole depth range in captivity?
It is low for minimal farming conditions, as cages, raceways, containers, and ponds do not cover the whole range in the wild, although we cannot be sure in some age classes. It is medium for high-standard farming conditions, as the mentioned systems at least overlap with the range in the wild. Our conclusion is based on a medium amount of evidence, as further farm information is needed for eggs, LARVAE, and FRY.3 Migration
Some species undergo seasonal changes of environments for different purposes (feeding, spawning, etc.), and to move there, they migrate for more or less extensive distances.
What is the probability of providing farming conditions that are compatible with the migrating or habitat-changing behaviour of the species?
It is low for minimal farming conditions, as the species undertakes more or less extensive migrations, and we cannot be sure that providing each age class with their respective environmental conditions will satisfy their urge to migrate or whether they need to experience the transition. It is medium for high-standard farming conditions, a) as the space range in captivity overlaps with the migration distance, although we cannot be sure in some age classes or b) given the resident strain respectively, which needs to be verified for SPAWNERS. Our conclusion is based on a medium amount of evidence, as further research is needed on specific migration distances in the wild.4 Reproduction
A species reproduces at a certain age, season, and sex ratio and possibly involving courtship rituals.
What is the probability of the species reproducing naturally in captivity without manipulation of these circumstances?
It is low for minimal farming conditions, as the species is manipulated (PHOTOPERIOD, temperature, hormonal manipulation). It is high for high-standard farming conditions, as natural breeding is possible and verified for the farming context. Our conclusion is based on a medium amount of evidence, as further research is needed.5 Aggregation
Species differ in the way they co-exist with conspecifics or other species from being solitary to aggregating unstructured, casually roaming in shoals or closely coordinating in schools of varying densities.
What is the probability of providing farming conditions that are compatible with the aggregation behaviour of the species?
It is low for minimal farming conditions, as densities in containers, raceways, tanks, and some cages and ponds go beyond (or below) the smallest density in the wild. It is high for high-standard farming conditions, as densities in other ponds cover the density range in the wild (given JUVENILES ponds are applied to SPAWNERS). Our conclusion is based on a medium amount of evidence, as our transformations into IND/L (to be able to compare with the wild) are only approximations and as further research is needed, especially in the wild.6 Aggression
There is a range of adverse reactions in species, spanning from being relatively indifferent towards others to defending valuable resources (e.g., food, territory, mates) to actively attacking opponents.
What is the probability of the species being non-aggressive and non-territorial in captivity?
It is low for minimal farming conditions, as the species is aggressive – even cannibalistic – in almost all age classes. It is medium for high-standard farming conditions, as ways to reduce (but not avoid) cannibalism (size homogeneity) are verified for the farming context, whereas other ways come with caveats: providing live prey is welfare-reducing for the prey species. Our conclusion is based on a medium amount of evidence.7 Substrate
Depending on where in the water column the species lives, it differs in interacting with or relying on various substrates for feeding or covering purposes (e.g., plants, rocks and stones, sand and mud, turbidity).
What is the probability of providing the species' substrate and shelter needs in captivity?
It is low for minimal farming conditions, as almost all age classes of the species use substrate, but cages, raceways, tanks, containers, and some ponds are devoid of it. It is medium for high-standard farming conditions given a) hatching substrate for eggs and b) natural reproduction with spawning substrate in ponds for SPAWNERS; earthen ponds for LARVAE to JUVENILES which are not replaced by concrete bottom exist, but enrichment with aquatic vegetation or woody debris has to be verified for the farming context. Our conclusion is based on a medium amount of evidence.8 Stress
Farming involves subjecting the species to diverse procedures (e.g., handling, air exposure, short-term confinement, short-term crowding, transport), sudden parameter changes or repeated disturbances (e.g., husbandry, size-grading).
What is the probability of the species not being stressed?
It is low for minimal farming conditions, as the species is stressed (water quality, confinement, crowding, density, transport). It is medium for high-standard farming conditions, as some ways to reduce (but not avoid) stress are verified for the farming context. Our conclusion is based on a low amount of evidence, as further research is needed for most age classes.9 Malformations
Deformities that – in contrast to diseases – are commonly irreversible may indicate sub-optimal rearing conditions (e.g., mechanical stress during hatching and rearing, environmental factors unless mentioned in crit. 3, aquatic pollutants, nutritional deficiencies) or a general incompatibility of the species with being farmed.
What is the probability of the species being malformed rarely?
It is unclear for minimal and high-standard farming conditions, given we mainly found data from lab studies. Our conclusion is based on a low amount of evidence, as further research is needed on malformation rates in farms.10 Slaughter
The cornerstone for a humane treatment is that slaughter a) immediately follows stunning (i.e., while the individual is unconscious), b) happens according to a clear and reproducible set of instructions verified under farming conditions, and c) avoids pain, suffering, and distress.
What is the probability of the species being slaughtered according to a humane slaughter protocol?
It is low for minimal farming conditions, as not finding anything about stunning/slaughter indicates that they probably die from asphyxia or through processing. It is unclear for high-standard farming conditions, as we did not find hints on how to improve the situation (stunning protocols in related species or in laboratory studies). Our conclusion is based on a low amount of evidence.Side note: Domestication
Teletchea and Fontaine introduced 5 domestication levels illustrating how far species are from having their life cycle closed in captivity without wild input, how long they have been reared in captivity, and whether breeding programmes are in place.
What is the species’ domestication level?
DOMESTICATION LEVEL 2 59, level 5 being fully domesticated.
Side note: Forage fish in the feed
450-1,000 milliard wild-caught fishes end up being processed into fish meal and fish oil each year which contributes to overfishing and represents enormous suffering. There is a broad range of feeding types within species reared in captivity.
To what degree may fish meal and fish oil based on forage fish be replaced by non-forage fishery components (e.g., poultry blood meal) or sustainable sources (e.g., soybean cake)?
All age classes:
- WILD: native and non-native waters: carnivorous 27 48 22 33 49 14 19 28.
- FARM: fish meal may be partly* replaced by sustainable sources, but requiring a considerable increase in fish oil 13. Fish meal may be mostly* replaced by a mix of sustainable sources and non-forage fishery components 7.
- LAB: fish meal may be mostly* replaced by sustainable sources, but requiring a considerable increase in fish oil 60. Fish meal and fish oil may be partly* replaced by sustainable sources 61.
*partly = <51% – mostly = 51-99% – completely = 100%
Glossary
BENTHOPELAGIC = living and feeding near the bottom of a body of water, floating above the floor
DOMESTICATION LEVEL 2 = part of the life cycle closed in captivity, also known as capture-based aquaculture 59
FARM = setting in farming environment or under conditions simulating farming environment in terms of size of facility or number of individuals
FINGERLINGS = early juveniles with fully developed scales and working fins, the size of a human finger
FRY = larvae from external feeding on
IND = individuals
JUVENILES = fully developed but immature individuals
LAB = setting in laboratory environment
LARVAE = hatching to mouth opening
PHOTOPERIOD = duration of daylight
POTAMODROMOUS = migrating within fresh water
RAS = Recirculating Aquaculture System - almost completely closed system using filters to clean and recirculate water with the aim of reducing water input and with the advantage of enabling close control of environmental parameters to maintain high water quality
SPAWNERS = adults during the spawning season; in farms: adults that are kept as broodstock
TOTAL LENGTH = from snout to tip of caudal fin as compared to fork length (which measures from snout to fork of caudal fin) or standard length (from head to base of tail fin) or body length (from the base of the eye notch to the posterior end of the telson) 47
WILD = setting in the wild
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