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Giant tiger prawn

Penaeus monodon

Penaeus monodon (Giant tiger prawn)
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Distribution
Distribution map: Penaeus monodon (Giant tiger prawn)




Information


Author: João L. Saraiva
Version: B | 1.1 (2021-12-21)


Reviewers: Pablo Arechavala-Lopez, Jenny Volstorf
Editor: Billo Heinzpeter Studer

Initial release: 2017-08-27
Version information:
  • Appearance: B
  • Last minor update: 2021-12-21

Cite as: »Saraiva, João L.. 2021. Penaeus monodon (WelfareCheck | farm). In: fair-fish database, ed. fair-fish. World Wide Web electronic publication. First published 2017-08-27. Version B | 1.1. https://fair-fish-database.net.«





WelfareScore | farm

Penaeus monodon
LiPoCe
Criteria
Home range
score-li
score-po
score-ce
Depth range
score-li
score-po
score-ce
Migration
score-li
score-po
score-ce
Reproduction
score-li
score-po
score-ce
Aggregation
score-li
score-po
score-ce
Aggression
score-li
score-po
score-ce
Substrate
score-li
score-po
score-ce
Stress
score-li
score-po
score-ce
Malformations
score-li
score-po
score-ce
Slaughter
score-li
score-po
score-ce


Legend

Condensed assessment of the species' likelihood and potential for good fish welfare in aquaculture, based on ethological findings for 10 crucial criteria.

  • Li = Likelihood that the individuals of the species experience good welfare under minimal farming conditions
  • Po = Potential of the individuals of the species to experience good welfare under high-standard farming conditions
  • Ce = Certainty of our findings in Likelihood and Potential

WelfareScore = Sum of criteria scoring "High" (max. 10)

score-legend
High
score-legend
Medium
score-legend
Low
score-legend
Unclear
score-legend
No findings



General remarks

Penaeus monodon is one of the most cultivated crustaceans worldwide, with over 500,000 tonnes harvested every year, and the most important traded aquaculture commodity in Asia. Despite being reared for over a century and fairly well studied, many of its biological needs are disregarded in farming, such as spatial requirements and reproductive conditions. In fact, spawning techniques majorly include uni- or bilateral ablation of eyestalks, even though there is evidence that this species spawns without direct manipulation. Stress is also an issue that should be tackled, as poor farming conditions may cause stress and evoke high sensitivity to infections. A slaughter protocol should also be implemented, as stunning and slaughtering are normally performed by immersion in icewater.




1  Home range

Many species traverse in a limited horizontal space (even if just for a certain period of time per year); the home range may be described as a species' understanding of its environment (i.e., its cognitive map) for the most important resources it needs access to.

What is the probability of providing the species' whole home range in captivity?

It is unclear for minimal and high-standard farming conditions. Our conclusion is based on a low amount of evidence.

Likelihoodscore-li
Potentialscore-po
Certaintyscore-ce

LARVAE: WILD: planktonic 1 2 3. FARM: 2,000 L 4 5 cylindro-conical tanks (ca 1.4 m diameter) 4.

POST-LARVAE: WILD: no data found yetFARM: transferred to JUVENILES ponds or tanks 6.

JUVENILES: WILD: no data found yet. FARM: extensive: >5 ha 6; semi-intensive: 1-5 ha 6; intensive: 0.1-1 ha 6.

ADULTS:  JUVENILES.

SPAWNERS: WILD: no data found yet. FARM: maturation tanks: 12-20 m2  (diameter ca 4-5 m [sic!]) 7 5; cages: 250 m(16 x 16 m [sic!]) 7; spawning tanks: 300-500 L for individual spawning, 5,000-8,000 L (up to 38,000 L 8) for collective spawning 9 5.




2  Depth range

Given the availability of resources (food, shelter) or the need to avoid predators, species spend their time within a certain depth range.

What is the probability of providing the species' whole depth range in captivity?

It is low for minimal and high-standard farming conditions. Our conclusion is based on a medium amount of evidence.

Likelihoodscore-li
Potentialscore-po
Certaintyscore-ce

Eggs: WILD: BENTHIC 2 offshore 10 < 110 m 11 3 2. FARM: usually kept with the spawners until hatching 6 (although not recommended 5 SPAWNERS for details); hatchery tanks: 200-1,000 L 5.

LARVAEWILD: planktonic, PELAGIC 1 10 2 3. Shallow coastal, estuarine, mangrove, and lagoon areas 1 11 10 2 3 6. FARM: cylindro-conical tanks: 1.8 m 4.

POST-LARVAEWILD: no data found yetFARM: transferred to JUVENILES ponds or tanks 6.

JUVENILES: WILD: BENTHIC 1 2 3. Shallow coastal, estuarine, mangrove, and lagoon areas 1 11 10 2 3 6. FARM: tanks: <1 m 12; ponds: 40-70 cm 12.

ADULTS: WILD: offshore 10, 50-110 m 5 6 10 11 3 2. FARM:  JUVENILES.

SPAWNERS: WILD:  ADULTS. FARM: maturation tanks: 0.6-1.3 m 13 7 14; cages: 4 m 7.




3  Migration

Some species undergo seasonal changes of environments for different purposes (feeding, spawning, etc.), and to move there, they migrate for more or less extensive distances.

What is the probability of providing farming conditions that are compatible with the migrating or habitat-changing behaviour of the species?

It is low for minimal and high-standard farming conditions. Our conclusion is based on a high amount of evidence.

Likelihoodscore-li
Potentialscore-po
Certaintyscore-ce

AMPHIDROMOUS, EURYHALINE 2 10.

LARVAE: WILD: inshore migration as hatching and larval stages occur 15, to shallow coastal, estuarine, mangrove, and lagoon areas 1 11 10 2 3 6. FARM: salinity variation is sometimes used 12. Stressed by low salinity 16. For details of holding systems  crit. 1 and 2.  

POST-LARVAE: WILD: coastal brackish water areas 17 18 19 15 6. FARM: transferred to JUVENILES tanks 6.

JUVENILES: WILD:  POST-LARVAEFARM: often reared in 15-25‰ salinity with good physiological indicators 20 21. For details of holding systems  crit. 1 and 2.

ADULTSWILD: offshore 10, 50-110 m depth 5 6 10 11 3 2. FARM:  JUVENILES 6.

SPAWNERS: WILD:  ADULTS. FARM: usually kept in seawater tanks in a dark room 6.




4  Reproduction

A species reproduces at a certain age, season, and sex ratio and possibly involving courtship rituals.

What is the probability of the species reproducing naturally in captivity without manipulation of theses circumstances?

It is low for minimal farming conditions. It is high for high-standard farming conditions. Our conclusion is based on a medium amount of evidence.

Likelihoodscore-li
Potentialscore-po
Certaintyscore-ce

WILD: spawn after the rainy season 2 10. Females mature at ca 47 mm, males at 37 mm 2. Only newly moulted females are able to spawn 22, who are courted by males 22. When successful, males deposit the spermatophores inside the thelycum 22 13. FARM: farmed individuals have lower mating success than wild ones 23. In ponds, females mature at 39 mm and males at 31 mm 13. Eyestalk ablation to induce female maturation  24 22 13 9 5 and improve male reproductive performance 14 is widely used, but reproduction can occur without this highly invasive procedure 9 14. Ablation can cause loss of quality and mortality of spawners 25LAB: less harmful yet still invasive serotonin injections stimulate female maturation 26




5  Aggregation

Species differ in the way they co-exist with conspecifics or other species from being solitary to aggregating unstructured, casually roaming in shoals or closely coordinating in schools of varying densities.

What is the probability of providing farming conditions that are compatible with the aggregation behaviour of the species?

It is unclear for minimal and high-standard farming conditions. Our conclusion is based on a low amount of evidence.

Likelihoodscore-li
Potentialscore-po
Certaintyscore-ce

LARVAE: WILD: no data found yet. FARM: tanks: 50-150 IND/L 12 6 5. Aerators provide upwelling current for larvae circulation in the tank 12. Ponds: 100-150 IND/m12; cages: 5,000-10,000 IND/m12.

POST-LARVAEWILD: no data found yetFARM: up to 150 IND/m2 27 28.

JUVENILES: WILD: no data found yet. FARM: extensive: 0.2-2 IND/m2 29 6; semi-intensive: 2-20 IND/m2 29 6; intensive: 10-60 IND/m2 29 6. Not stressed by density ≤50 IND/m2 30.

ADULTS:  JUVENILES.

SPAWNERS: WILD: no data found yet. FARM: tanks: 2-7 IND/m2 7 13; cages: 1 IND/m7.




6  Aggression

There is a range of adverse reactions in species, spanning from being relatively indifferent towards others to defending valuable resources (e.g., food, territory, mates) to actively attacking opponents.

What is the probability of the species being non-aggressive and non-territorial in captivity?

It is unclear for minimal and high-standard farming conditions. Our conclusion is based on a low amount of evidence.

Likelihoodscore-li
Potentialscore-po
Certaintyscore-ce

LARVAE: cannibalistic with increasing density 31 5 6. Shelter reduces cannibalism 31.

POST-LARVAE: no data found yet.

JUVENILES: no signs of aggression 32, no aggression reported in literature.

ADULTS:  JUVENILES.

SPAWNERS: no aggression reported in literature.




7  Substrate

Depending on where in the water column the species lives, it differs in interacting with or relying on various substrates for feeding or covering purposes (e.g., plants, rocks and stones, sand and mud).

What is the probability of providing the species' substrate and shelter needs in captivity?

It is low for minimal farming conditions. It is medium for high-standard farming conditions. Our conclusion is based on a medium amount of evidence.

Likelihoodscore-li
Potentialscore-po
Certaintyscore-ce

LARVAEWILDPELAGIC 1 10 2 3. FARM: shelter reduces cannibalism 31.

POST-LARVAEWILD: BENTHIC 19FARM: transferred to JUVENILES ponds and tanks 6.

JUVENILES: WILD: use structures as shelter 33. FARM: shelter and substrate increase growth and production 34. LAB: use substrate features for shelter and food 35.

ADULTS: WILD: no data found yet. FARM JUVENILES.

SPAWNERS: WILD and FARM: no data found yet.




8  Stress

Farming involves subjecting the species to diverse procedures (e.g., handling, air exposure, short-term confinement, short-term crowding, transport), sudden parameter changes or repeated disturbances (e.g., husbandry, size-grading).

What is the probability of the species not being stressed?

It is low for minimal farming conditions. It is medium for high-standard farming conditions. Our conclusion is based on a high amount of evidence.

Likelihoodscore-li
Potentialscore-po
Certaintyscore-ce

LARVAE: for stress and salinity crit. 3.

POST-LARVAE: no data found yet.

JUVENILES: stressed by sharp temperature increase (from 24 to 33 ºC), salinity decrease (from 31 to 15‰ salinity) 36 37 21, handling 38, ammonia >0.02 mg/L 39, air exposure 37, and low oxygen in water 30 37, but not by pH decrease from 8.3 to 5.9 30.

ADULTS: no data found yet.

SPAWNERS: stressed by transport, handling, crowding, hyperthermia 7.




9  Malformations

Deformities that – in contrast to diseases – are commonly irreversible may indicate sub-optimal rearing conditions (e.g., mechanical stress during hatching and rearing, environmental factors unless mentioned in crit. 3, aquatic pollutants, nutritional deficiencies) or a general incompatibility of the species with being farmed.

What is the probability of the species being malformed rarely?

It is unclear for minimal and high-standard farming conditions. Our conclusion is based on a low amount of evidence.

Likelihoodscore-li
Potentialscore-po
Certaintyscore-ce

Eggs, LARVAE and POST-LARVAE: no data found yet.

JUVENILES: runt-deformity syndrome occurs, caused by viral infection 40.

ADULTS:  JUVENILES.




10  Slaughter

The cornerstone for a humane treatment is that slaughter a) immediately follows stunning (i.e., while the individual is unconscious), b) happens according to a clear and reproducible set of instructions verified under farming conditions, and c) avoids pain, suffering, and distress.

What is the probability of the species being slaughtered according to a humane slaughter protocol?

It is low for minimal farming conditions. It is medium for high-standard farming conditions. Our conclusion is based on a medium amount of evidence.

Likelihoodscore-li
Potentialscore-po
Certaintyscore-ce

Common slaughter method: immersion in icewater 6. High-standard slaughter method: electrical stunning established as a humane stunning method in crabs and lobsters (110 volt, 2-5 amp electrical charge for 10 s) 41 42 43. Further research needed to determine whether this applies to P. monodon as well.




Side note: Domestication

Teletchea and Fontaine introduced 5 domestication levels illustrating how far species are from having their life cycle closed in captivity without wild input, how long they have been reared in captivity, and whether breeding programmes are in place.

What is the species’ domestication level?

DOMESTICATION LEVEL 4 44, level 5 being fully domesticated.




Side note: Forage fish in the feed

450-1,000 milliard wild-caught fishes end up being processed into fish meal and fish oil each year which contributes to overfishing and represents enormous suffering. There is a broad range of feeding types within species reared in captivity.

To what degree may fish meal and fish oil based on forage fish be replaced by non-forage fishery components (e.g., poultry blood meal) or sustainable sources (e.g., soybean cake)?

All age classes: WILD: omnivorous 3 45. FARM: for JUVENILES and ADULTS fish meal may be partly* replaced by sustainable sources 45 46 47No data found yet for LARVAEPOST-LARVAE and SPAWNERS.

* partly = <51% – mostly = 51-99% – completely = 100%




Glossary


ADULTS = mature individuals, for details Findings 10.1 Ontogenetic development
AMPHIDROMOUS = migrating between fresh water and sea independent of spawning
BENTHIC = living at the bottom of a body of water, able to rest on the floor
DOMESTICATION LEVEL 4 = entire life cycle closed in captivity without wild inputs 44
EURYHALINE = tolerant of a wide range of salinities
FARM = setting in farming environment or under conditions simulating farming environment in terms of size of facility or number of individuals
IND = individuals
JUVENILES = fully developed but immature individuals, for details Findings 10.1 Ontogenetic development
LAB = setting in laboratory environment
LARVAE = hatching to mouth opening, for details Findings 10.1 Ontogenetic development
PELAGIC = living independent of bottom and shore of a body of water
POST-LARVAE = fully developed individuals, beginning of external sex differentiation; for details Findings 10.1 Ontogenetic development
SPAWNERS = adults during the spawning season; in farms: adults that are kept as broodstock
WILD = setting in the wild



Bibliography


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