Distribution
Information
Version: C | 2.0 (2022-12-27)
Please note: This part of the profile is currently being revised.
WelfareScore | farm
Oncorhynchus mykiss
LiPoCe
Criteria
Home range
Depth range
Migration
Reproduction
Aggregation
Aggression
Substrate
Stress
Malformations
Slaughter
Legend
Condensed assessment of the species' likelihood and potential for good fish welfare in aquaculture, based on ethological findings for 10 crucial criteria.
- Li = Likelihood that the individuals of the species experience good welfare under minimal farming conditions
- Po = Potential of the individuals of the species to experience good welfare under high-standard farming conditions
- Ce = Certainty of our findings in Likelihood and Potential
WelfareScore = Sum of criteria scoring "High" (max. 10)
High
Medium
Low
Unclear
No findings
General remarks
Oncorhynchus mykiss is one of the dominant salmonids farmed in Europe and North America, second only to Salmo salar. In addition, it is one of the most widely studied model fish species in the wild and in captivity. Yet, the living conditions and the husbandry systems that maximise the welfare of this species are still to be defined, developed, and improved. This lack is quite incomprehensible, given the background and the availability of research performed on this species. The low FishEthoScore is mainly due to the need of space and substrate and to high levels of aggression, stress, and high deformations under farming conditions. Grow-out typically takes place in ponds or raceways, sometimes also in cages. There are two strains in O. mykiss: the anadromous one, also called Steelhead trout, and the potamodromous Rainbow trout. Aquaculture populations probably combine genes of both strains. In anadromous FISHES, throughout the life history, morphology, behaviour, and environmental requirements change. Husbandry systems and practices need to take such differences into account in order to achieve and maintain high welfare. The development of new rearing strategies to optimise the husbandry practices as well as handling with special care would be a step forward to solve some specific welfare concerns. Finally, providing feed which contains a lower amount of fish components from wild catch has proven feasible for this species in lab studies, so a protocol for application in farming conditions has to be developed.
Note: The name of the age classes differ in the two strains: LARVAE in Rainbow trout are called ALEVINS in Steelhead trout, JUVENILES in Rainbow trout are called PARR and SMOLTS in Steelhead trout, SPAWNERS in Rainbow trout are called GRILSE and KELTS in Steelhead trout. For consistency with other profiles, we will apply the usual age class structure of eggs, LARVAE, FRY, JUVENILES, ADULTS, SPAWNERS and make sure to signal the respective age class for Steelhead trout in the entries.
1 Home range
Many species traverse in a limited horizontal space (even if just for a certain period of time per year); the home range may be described as a species' understanding of its environment (i.e., its cognitive map) for the most important resources it needs access to.
What is the probability of providing the species' whole home range in captivity?
It is low for minimal farming conditions. It is medium for high-standard farming conditions, as the range in captivity at least overlaps with the range in the wild. Our conclusion is based on a medium amount of evidence, as wild information in larvae, fry, and at sea (Steelhead trout) as well as farm information in spawners is missing.Likelihood
Potential
Certainty
2 Depth range
Given the availability of resources (food, shelter) or the need to avoid predators, species spend their time within a certain depth range.
What is the probability of providing the species' whole depth range in captivity?
It is low for minimal farming conditions. It is medium for high-standard farming conditions, as the range in captivity at least overlaps with the range in the wild. Our conclusion is based on a medium amount of evidence.Likelihood
Potential
Certainty
3 Migration
Some species undergo seasonal changes of environments for different purposes (feeding, spawning, etc.), and to move there, they migrate for more or less extensive distances.
What is the probability of providing farming conditions that are compatible with the migrating or habitat-changing behaviour of the species?
It is low for minimal and high-standard farming conditions, as both strains undertake extensive migrations, and we cannot be sure that providing each age class with their respective environmental conditions will satisfy their urge to migrate or whether they need to experience the transition. Our conclusion is based on a medium amount of evidence.Likelihood
Potential
Certainty
4 Reproduction
A species reproduces at a certain age, season, and sex ratio and possibly involving courtship rituals.
What is the probability of the species reproducing naturally in captivity without manipulation of these circumstances?
It is low for minimal farming conditions. It is medium for high-standard farming conditions, as natural spawning is possible, and small farms simulate natural spawning conditions and do not apply hormonal manipulation, but omitting of separation of males and females (to be able to court) as well as omitting of stripping needs to be verified for the farming context. Our conclusion is based on a medium amount of evidence.Likelihood
Potential
Certainty
5 Aggregation
Species differ in the way they co-exist with conspecifics or other species from being solitary to aggregating unstructured, casually roaming in shoals or closely coordinating in schools of varying densities.
What is the probability of providing farming conditions that are compatible with the aggregation behaviour of the species?
It is low for minimal farming conditions, as – even in the absence of densities in the wild – we may conclude from laboratory studies that densities in raceways, cages, and some tanks are potentially stress inducing. It is medium for high-standard farming conditions, as lower stress at stocking densities in ponds and (some) tanks need to be verified for the farming context. Our conclusion is based on a medium amount of evidence.Likelihood
Potential
Certainty
6 Aggression
There is a range of adverse reactions in species, spanning from being relatively indifferent towards others to defending valuable resources (e.g., food, territory, mates) to actively attacking opponents.
What is the probability of the species being non-aggressive and non-territorial in captivity?
It is low for minimal farming conditions, as aggression is present in all age classes, and size-grading does not seem to improve it. It is medium for high-standard farming conditions, as innovations to decrease aggression by adding enrichment need to be verified for the farming context. Our conclusion is based on a medium amount of evidence.Likelihood
Potential
Certainty
7 Substrate
Depending on where in the water column the species lives, it differs in interacting with or relying on various substrates for feeding or covering purposes (e.g., plants, rocks and stones, sand and mud, turbidity).
What is the probability of providing the species' substrate and shelter needs in captivity?
It is low for minimal farming conditions, as the species uses substrate, but many or all farming facilities for each age class are devoid of it. It is medium for high-standard farming conditions a) given earthen ponds which are not replaced by concrete or stone bottom, b) as improvements for spawners are unlikely, and c) as innovations for enrichment need to be verified for the farming context. Our conclusion is based on a medium amount of evidence.Likelihood
Potential
Certainty
8 Stress
Farming involves subjecting the species to diverse procedures (e.g., handling, air exposure, short-term confinement, short-term crowding, transport), sudden parameter changes or repeated disturbances (e.g., husbandry, size-grading).
What is the probability of the species not being stressed?
It is low for minimal farming conditions. It is medium for high-standard farming conditions, as innovations to reduce stress need to be verified for the farming context. Our conclusions are based on a medium amount of evidence.Likelihood
Potential
Certainty
9 Malformations
Deformities that – in contrast to diseases – are commonly irreversible may indicate sub-optimal rearing conditions (e.g., mechanical stress during hatching and rearing, environmental factors unless mentioned in crit. 3, aquatic pollutants, nutritional deficiencies) or a general incompatibility of the species with being farmed.
What is the probability of the species being malformed rarely?
It is low for minimal farming conditions, as malformation rates exceed 10%. It is medium for high-standard farming conditions, as some malformations result from conditions that may be changed (rearing intensity). Our conclusion is based on a low amount of evidence, as improvement of the situation by adjusting conditions needs more proof.Likelihood
Potential
Certainty
10 Slaughter
The cornerstone for a humane treatment is that slaughter a) immediately follows stunning (i.e., while the individual is unconscious), b) happens according to a clear and reproducible set of instructions verified under farming conditions, and c) avoids pain, suffering, and distress.
What is the probability of the species being slaughtered according to a humane slaughter protocol?
It is low for minimal farming conditions. It is high for high-standard farming conditions, as a) percussive stunning followed by bleeding or b) electrical stunning followed by percussive killing or followed by bleeding induce unconsciousness fast, kill while still unconscious, and are verified for the farming context. Our conclusion is based on a high amount of evidence.Likelihood
Potential
Certainty
Side note: Domestication
Teletchea and Fontaine introduced 5 domestication levels illustrating how far species are from having their life cycle closed in captivity without wild input, how long they have been reared in captivity, and whether breeding programmes are in place.
What is the species’ domestication level?
DOMESTICATION LEVEL 5 84 85, fully domesticated. Cultured since late 19th century 3.
Side note: Forage fish in the feed
450-1,000 milliard wild-caught fishes end up being processed into fish meal and fish oil each year which contributes to overfishing and represents enormous suffering. There is a broad range of feeding types within species reared in captivity.
To what degree may fish meal and fish oil based on forage fish be replaced by non-forage fishery components (e.g., poultry blood meal) or sustainable sources (e.g., soybean cake)?
All age classes:
- WILD: carnivorous (Rainbow trout) 86 87 19 (Rainbow and Steelhead trout) 62.
- FARM: no data found yet.
- LAB: FRY: fish meal in parallel to fish oil may be partly* replaced by sustainable sources 88. JUVENILES: fish meal may be mostly* 89, fish oil party* replaced by sustainable sources 90. Fish meal in parallel to fish oil may be partly* replaced by sustainable sources 88 or completely* if it had already been given for first feeding 7 months prior 91. ADULTS: fish meal may be mostly* replaced by sustainable sources 92.
*partly = <51% – mostly = 51-99% – completely = 100%
Side note: Commercial relevance
How much is this species farmed annually?
Glossary
ALEVINS = larvae until the end of yolk sac absorption
ANADROMOUS = migrating from the sea into fresh water to spawn
DOMESTICATION LEVEL 5 = selective breeding programmes are used focusing on specific goals 84
EURYHALINE = tolerant of a wide range of salinities
FARM = setting in farming environment or under conditions simulating farming environment in terms of size of facility or number of individuals
FISHES = Using "fishes" instead of "fish" for more than one individual - whether of the same species or not - is inspired by Jonathan Balcombe who proposed this usage in his book "What a fish knows". By referring to a group as "fishes", we acknowledge the individuals with their personalities and needs instead of an anonymous mass of "fish".
FRY = larvae from external feeding on
GRILSE = adults returning from sea to home river to spawn
IND = individuals
JUVENILES = fully developed but immature individuals
KELTS = adults surviving spawning
LAB = setting in laboratory environment
LARVAE = hatching to mouth opening
PARR = juvenile stage in rivers
PHOTOPERIOD = duration of daylight
POTAMODROMOUS = migrating within fresh water
SMOLTS = juvenile stage migrating to the sea
SPAWNERS = adults during the spawning season; in farms: adults that are kept as broodstock
WILD = setting in the wild
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