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Striped mullet

Mugil cephalus

Mugil cephalus (Striped mullet)
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Distribution
Distribution map: Mugil cephalus (Striped mullet)

least concern



Information


Author: Maria Filipa Castanheira
Version: B | 1.1 (2022-07-20)


Reviewers: Pablo Arechavala-Lopez, Jenny Volstorf
Editor: Billo Heinzpeter Studer

Initial release: 2018-02-14
Version information:
  • Appearance: B
  • Last minor update: 2022-07-20

Cite as: »Castanheira, Maria Filipa. 2022. Mugil cephalus (WelfareCheck | farm). In: fair-fish database, ed. fair-fish. World Wide Web electronic publication. First published 2018-02-14. Version B | 1.1. https://fair-fish-database.net.«





WelfareScore | farm

Mugil cephalus
LiPoCe
Criteria
Home range
score-li
score-po
score-ce
Depth range
score-li
score-po
score-ce
Migration
score-li
score-po
score-ce
Reproduction
score-li
score-po
score-ce
Aggregation
score-li
score-po
score-ce
Aggression
score-li
score-po
score-ce
Substrate
score-li
score-po
score-ce
Stress
score-li
score-po
score-ce
Malformations
score-li
score-po
score-ce
Slaughter
score-li
score-po
score-ce


Legend

Condensed assessment of the species' likelihood and potential for good fish welfare in aquaculture, based on ethological findings for 10 crucial criteria.

  • Li = Likelihood that the individuals of the species experience good welfare under minimal farming conditions
  • Po = Potential of the individuals of the species to experience good welfare under high-standard farming conditions
  • Ce = Certainty of our findings in Likelihood and Potential

WelfareScore = Sum of criteria scoring "High" (max. 10)

score-legend
High
score-legend
Medium
score-legend
Low
score-legend
Unclear
score-legend
No findings



General remarks

Mugil cephalus is an important food fish species which can be found in coastal tropical and subtropical waters worldwide. M. cephalus has been farmed for centuries in extensive and semi-intensive ponds in many countries and recently has been considered a promising species for aquaculture diversification. However, many behavioural aspects are yet to be fully understood, namely home range, migration, aggregation, aggression, malformations, and slaughter. Addressing these issues may improve the farming and welfare conditions. 




1  Home range

Many species traverse in a limited horizontal space (even if just for a certain period of time per year); the home range may be described as a species' understanding of its environment (i.e., its cognitive map) for the most important resources it needs access to.

What is the probability of providing the species' whole home range in captivity?

It is unclear for minimal farming conditions. It is medium for high-standard farming conditions. Our conclusion is based on a medium amount of evidence.

Likelihoodscore-li
Potentialscore-po
Certaintyscore-ce

LARVAE: WILD: no data found yet. FARM: round tanks: 2,000-10,000 L 1.

JUVENILES: WILD: 0-2.2 km/d 2 3. Show high site fidelity to estuarine areas 4 5. FARM: tanks: 5,000-10,000 L 1; earthen tanks: 82.3 m 6, 350 m 7.

ADULTS:  JUVENILES.

SPAWNERS: WILD: <3-9 km/d 3. FARM: raceways: 205 m1.




2  Depth range

Given the availability of resources (food, shelter) or the need to avoid predators, species spend their time within a certain depth range.

What is the probability of providing the species' whole depth range in captivity?

It is low for minimal farming conditions. It is medium for high-standard farming conditions. Our conclusion is based on a low amount of evidence.

Likelihoodscore-li
Potentialscore-po
Certaintyscore-ce

LARVAE: WILD: 0.5-914 m 4 8 9. Most often recorded at the surface 8. FARM: no data found yet. 

JUVENILES: WILD: 0-120 m 10 11 12. Most often recorded at the surface when not feeding on the bottom 13 5. FARM: ponds: 1.5-1.8 m 14.

ADULTS:  JUVENILES.

SPAWNERS: WILD: spawning takes place at sea surface 15. FARM: no data found yet.




3  Migration

Some species undergo seasonal changes of environments for different purposes (feeding, spawning, etc.), and to move there, they migrate for more or less extensive distances.

What is the probability of providing farming conditions that are compatible with the migrating or habitat-changing behaviour of the species?

It is low for minimal and high-standard farming conditions. Our conclusion is based on a medium amount of evidence.

Likelihoodscore-li
Potentialscore-po
Certaintyscore-ce

CATADROMOUS 4 16. EURYHALINE 17.

LARVAE: WILD: migration from the coastal nurseries to the riverine 18 4 19 20FARM: rearing in seawater 21. For details of holding systems  crit. 1 and 2.

JUVENILES: WILD: mainly in marine and estuarine waters but can also be found in fresh waters 18 13 22. FARM: rearing in fresh water, brackish water, and marine water 14. Stressed by low salinity, namely 15 and 25 ppt 23. For details of holding systems  crit. 1 and 2.

ADULTS: JUVENILES.

SPAWNERS: spawning migration 24 18. FARM: rearing in seawater 21 1. For details of holding systems  crit. 1 and 2.




4  Reproduction

A species reproduces at a certain age, season, and sex ratio and possibly involving courtship rituals.

What is the probability of the species reproducing naturally in captivity without manipulation of these circumstances?

It is low for minimal and high-standard farming conditions. Our conclusion is based on a high amount of evidence.

Likelihoodscore-li
Potentialscore-po
Certaintyscore-ce

WILD: spawning season varies according to geographical location 25 26 27. FARM: both genders displaying reproductive dysfunctions 28 29. Reproduction is achieved through hormonal induction 30 1 28 29. Fingerling supply for aquaculture comes mainly from wild stocks 14 29.




5  Aggregation

Species differ in the way they co-exist with conspecifics or other species from being solitary to aggregating unstructured, casually roaming in shoals or closely coordinating in schools of varying densities.

What is the probability of providing farming conditions that are compatible with the aggregation behaviour of the species?

It is unclear for minimal and high-standard farming conditions. Our conclusion is based on a low amount of evidence.

Likelihoodscore-li
Potentialscore-po
Certaintyscore-ce

LARVAE: WILD: 0.2-181.8 IND/100 m9. FARM: tanks: 10-20 IND/L 1.

FRY: WILD: no data found yet. FARM: 2-8 IND/L 1; ponds: 125 IND/m2 14.

JUVENILES: WILD: live in schools 18. Further research needed on extension of schools. FARM: ponds: initial density of 10-15 g individuals: 0.004-0.007 kg/m3 14.

ADULTS JUVENILES.

SPAWNERS: WILD: spawning aggregation 18 5. Further research needed on extension of schools. FARM: no data found yet.




6  Aggression

There is a range of adverse reactions in species, spanning from being relatively indifferent towards others to defending valuable resources (e.g., food, territory, mates) to actively attacking opponents.

What is the probability of the species being non-aggressive and non-territorial in captivity?

It is unclear for minimal and high-standard farming conditions. Our conclusion is based on a low amount of evidence.

Likelihoodscore-li
Potentialscore-po
Certaintyscore-ce

LARVAE: no data found yet

JUVENILES: dominance hierarchies and feed competition in polyculture 31.

ADULTS: ➝ JUVENILES.

SPAWNERS: no data found yet.




7  Substrate

Depending on where in the water column the species lives, it differs in interacting with or relying on various substrates for feeding or covering purposes (e.g., plants, rocks and stones, sand and mud, turbidity).

What is the probability of providing the species' substrate and shelter needs in captivity?

It is unclear for minimal farming conditions. It is medium for high-standard farming conditions. Our conclusion is based on a medium amount of evidence.

Likelihoodscore-li
Potentialscore-po
Certaintyscore-ce

LARVAE: WILD: do not use substrate 8 9. FARM: rearing in tanks 1. Tanks usually without substrate.

JUVENILES: WILD: generally prefer sandy and muddy substrate 32 33. FARM: rearing in earthen ponds 6 7 14 and tanks 1. Tanks usually without substrate.

ADULTS:  JUVENILES.

SPAWNERS: WILD: no data found yet. FARM:  LARVAE.




8  Stress

Farming involves subjecting the species to diverse procedures (e.g., handling, air exposure, short-term confinement, short-term crowding, transport), sudden parameter changes or repeated disturbances (e.g., husbandry, size-grading).

What is the probability of the species not being stressed?

It is low for minimal farming conditions. It is medium for high-standard farming conditions. Our conclusion is based on a medium amount of evidence.

Likelihoodscore-li
Potentialscore-po
Certaintyscore-ce

LARVAE: stress resistance when fed with enriched Artemia 34.

JUVENILES: for stress and salinity crit. 3.

ADULTS: stressed by handling 35. For stress and salinity crit. 3.

SPAWNERS: no data found yet.




9  Malformations

Deformities that – in contrast to diseases – are commonly irreversible may indicate sub-optimal rearing conditions (e.g., mechanical stress during hatching and rearing, environmental factors unless mentioned in crit. 3, aquatic pollutants, nutritional deficiencies) or a general incompatibility of the species with being farmed.

What is the probability of the species being malformed rarely?

It is unclear for minimal and high-standard farming conditions. Our conclusion is based on a low amount of evidence.

Likelihoodscore-li
Potentialscore-po
Certaintyscore-ce

LARVAE: swim bladder hyper inflated in 16.9-33.6% individuals 36.

JUVENILES: no data found yet.

ADULTS: no data found yet.




10  Slaughter

The cornerstone for a humane treatment is that slaughter a) immediately follows stunning (i.e., while the individual is unconscious), b) happens according to a clear and reproducible set of instructions verified under farming conditions, and c) avoids pain, suffering, and distress.

What is the probability of the species being slaughtered according to a humane slaughter protocol?

There are no findings for minimal and high-standard farming conditions.

Likelihoodscore-li
Potentialscore-po
Certaintyscore-ce

Common and high-standard slaughter method: no data found yet.




Side note: Domestication

Teletchea and Fontaine introduced 5 domestication levels illustrating how far species are from having their life cycle closed in captivity without wild input, how long they have been reared in captivity, and whether breeding programmes are in place.

What is the species’ domestication level?

DOMESTICATION LEVEL 4 37, level 5 being fully domesticated.




Side note: Forage fish in the feed

450-1,000 milliard wild-caught fishes end up being processed into fish meal and fish oil each year which contributes to overfishing and represents enormous suffering. There is a broad range of feeding types within species reared in captivity.

To what degree may fish meal and fish oil based on forage fish be replaced by non-forage fishery components (e.g., poultry blood meal) or sustainable sources (e.g., soybean cake)?

All age classes: WILD: carnivorous 38 39 40 41. FARM: fish meal and fish oil may be partly* replaced by non-forage fishery components for LARVAE 41 and JUVENILESADULTS, and SPAWNERS 42 43.

*partly = <51% – mostly = 51-99% – completely = 100%




Glossary


ADULTS = mature individuals
CATADROMOUS = migrating from fresh water into the sea to spawn
DOMESTICATION LEVEL 4 = entire life cycle closed in captivity without wild inputs 37
EURYHALINE = tolerant of a wide range of salinities
FARM = setting in farming environment or under conditions simulating farming environment in terms of size of facility or number of individuals
FRY = larvae from external feeding on
IND = individuals
JUVENILES = fully developed but immature individuals
LARVAE = hatching to mouth opening
SPAWNERS = adults during the spawning season; in farms: adults that are kept as broodstock
WILD = setting in the wild



Bibliography


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